18 Light Grey Couch Living Room Ideas That Feel Airy and Stylish

A light grey couch anchors an airy living room through sophisticated color pairings and strategic spatial planning. Pairing it with soft pastels, metallic accents, and layered textures introduces depth without visual heaviness. White walls and reflective surfaces amplify luminosity, while natural wood or green touches maintain warmth and balance. Curated accessories, minimalist décor, and light rugs enhance openness. Exploring nuanced accent colors and refined material contrasts can further uplift both style and spatial harmony in living spaces.

Key Takeaways

• Pair a light grey couch with soft pastel accents and natural wood elements for a balanced, airy, and inviting atmosphere.
• Layer multiple textures—like velvet cushions, woven rugs, and glass surfaces—to create depth and visual interest around the couch.
• Use white walls and sheer window treatments to maximize natural light and keep the living room bright and spacious.
• Introduce sage green or blush pink accessories for subtle pops of color that complement the cool tones of a light grey sofa.
• Opt for minimalist decor and reflective surfaces to maintain an uncluttered, luminous, and stylish living area.

Pair With Soft Pastel Accents

When paired with soft pastel accents, a light grey couch serves as a neutral anchor that amplifies the subtle vibrancy of hues such as blush pink, mint green, and pale lavender. The intrinsic neutrality of a light grey sofa provides a balanced backdrop, enabling pastel colors to impart a gentle contrast without overpowering the spatial composition. By introducing soft pastel accents through cushions, throws, or curated wall art, designers achieve an airy feel that is both whimsical and serene. Strategic placement of these tones enhances perceived space and light, supporting a cohesive design scheme. Integrating natural materials—such as light woods or woven textiles—further raises the visual harmony, grounding pastels and grey in organic warmth while reinforcing the room’s light, sophisticated aesthetic. Additionally, metallic lighting fixtures offer an elevated aesthetic appeal, complementing both the pastel accents and the neutral couch to create a cohesive and stylish living space.

Layer Multiple Textures

Integrating a spectrum of fabrics and finishes around a light grey couch establishes tactile complexity and visual intrigue within the living room. Strategic juxtaposition of plush textiles—such as velvet or boucle—with sleek surfaces like glass, metallics, or polished wood activates spatial contrast and amplifies the neutral palette. This interplay of soft and hard elements cultivates a harmonious environment, preventing monotony and enhancing both comfort and sophistication. Aim for at least three distinct textures in the room to achieve a trendy and artistically rich atmosphere, ensuring balance and avoiding overwhelming the space.

Mix Fabrics and Finishes

Although a light grey couch establishes a neutral anchor in the living room, expert application of layered textures enhances the environment’s visual and tactile complexity. Designers advocate a sophisticated mix fabrics approach, integrating velvet cushions, linen throws, and cotton blankets to deliver layered decor that feels warm and cosy. Spatial balance is achieved by juxtaposing the soft matte of fabric with the lustrous sheen of ceramic or glass accents, amplifying dimension and visual interest. The interplay of textures, materiality, and finish deepens the room’s character without overwhelming the airy ambiance. Subtle contrasts—such as a woolen rug beneath the sleek silhouette of a light grey couch—foster a cohesive yet dynamic aesthetic.

Texture Type	Finish	Effect on Space
Velvet Cushion	Matte	Warmth, soft contrast
Linen Throw	Textured	Light, airy layering
Leather Chair	Smooth/Glossy	Depth, visual intrigue

Combine Soft and Hard

While a light grey couch introduces a versatile and understated foundation, the deliberate layering of soft and hard textures enhances spatial depth and visual intrigue.

Integrating layered fabrics—such as plush velvet cushions, linen throws, and woven rugs—amplifies tactile variety, enriching the sensory experience and cultivating a cozy atmosphere.

The juxtaposition of soft neutrals with structured elements, like a sleek leather chair or a metal accent table, establishes equilibrium within the composition.

Textured accessories, including shaggy rugs or woven baskets, offer contrasting surfaces that counterbalance the couch’s smooth upholstery, lending dimension and warmth.

Through expert manipulation of color theory and spatial awareness, the interplay of textures guarantees that a living room centered on a light grey couch feels both airy and compellingly styled, never monotonous.

Use White Walls for a Bright Backdrop

White walls strategically maximize the diffusion of natural light, optimizing luminosity throughout the living area. This approach amplifies the perception of spaciousness, especially when paired with the understated elegance of a light gray sofa.

Additionally, the crisp backdrop accentuates the couch’s nuanced undertones, ensuring it remains visually prominent within the composition.

Enhances Natural Light Flow

By utilizing the reflective properties of white walls, a living room outfitted with a light grey couch maximizes the diffusion of natural light throughout the space.

The interplay between the light grey upholstery and crisp white walls leverages fundamental color theory: lighter hues inherently reflect more light, diminishing shadows and establishing an airy atmosphere.

This strategic palette choice creates a luminous, inviting environment that feels both open and serene. The subtle tonal variation between the light grey and white walls also introduces depth without visual clutter, maintaining a cohesive and stylish look.

Additionally, consistent use of these hues guarantees that natural light is not absorbed but rather amplified, resulting in a living area that feels invigoratingly bright and adaptable to various accent colors and textures.

Amplifies Spacious Room Feel

Utilizing color theory and spatial dynamics, the pairing of a light grey couch with white walls optimizes the perception of space within a living room.

This deliberate combination leverages high light reflectivity and minimal chromatic contrast to establish an airy ambiance and accentuate spaciousness. The crisp neutrality of white walls functions as a luminous backdrop, maximizing natural and artificial light diffusion.

The subtle tonal variance between the light grey couch and the white backdrop maintains visual depth without fragmenting the room’s cohesion, hence reinforcing a modern aesthetic ideal for compact interiors.

1. White walls reflect light, visually enlarging the room and creating openness.
2. Light grey couches introduce gentle contrast, avoiding visual clutter.
3. The pairing sustains an uncluttered, airy ambiance through spatial continuity.
4. This strategy underpins a versatile, modern aesthetic adaptable to evolving décor.

Highlights Couch’s Subtle Tones

When a light grey couch is positioned against white walls, the interplay of subtle value shifts and high reflectivity becomes a visual asset. The nuanced gradations of the couch’s subtle tones are accentuated by the luminous backdrop, allowing the minimalist design to express clarity and restraint.

In color theory, the juxtaposition of a light grey couch with white walls leverages high light reflectance, which amplifies the perception of an airy atmosphere and spatial openness. This chromatic pairing establishes a neutral base, directing attention to form and proportion while accommodating accent hues and textural contrasts without visual clutter.

The cohesion produced by such a palette makes it versatile, as it supports compositional balance and enhances the architectural simplicity fundamental to contemporary minimalist design philosophies.

Add Natural Wood Elements

Introducing natural wood elements into a living room anchored by a light grey couch establishes visual equilibrium through material contrast and color temperature.

The interplay between the cool neutrality of the light grey couch and the inherent warmth of wood generates a balanced spatial experience.

By selecting specific wood finishes and strategically placing wooden accessories, designers can deepen textural variety and promote an inviting atmosphere.

Consider the following expert recommendations:

1. Opt for light wood species like birch or pine to enhance the room’s airiness and create a subtle contrast with grey upholstery.
2. Integrate reclaimed wood accents—driftwood décor or rustic beams—for an organic, tactile layer.
3. Employ a mix of wood tones with furniture and shelving to introduce spatial depth.
4. Use wooden accessories, such as frames or planters, to unify the natural aesthetic.

To enhance warmth and simplicity, consider adopting a cozy neutral color palette with whites, creams, and soft grays, creating a seamless blend with natural wood elements.

Incorporate Metallic Touches

While the cool neutrality of a light grey couch establishes a versatile foundation, the deliberate integration of metallic accents introduces dynamic reflectivity and visual tension to the living room composition.

Metallic touches—such as gold or silver lamps, picture frames, and vases—serve as luminous focal points, their reflective surfaces amplifying ambient light and enhancing the modern aesthetic.

By utilizing metallic textiles, like pillows or throws with a subtle sheen, designers can inject sophistication without sacrificing the room’s airy quality.

The juxtaposition of metallic elements with soft textures, such as plush rugs or velvety cushions, is essential to avoid a sterile environment and maintain tactile harmony.

Strategically distributed metallic bases or trays unify the color scheme, adding layered visual interest within the restrained grey palette.

Incorporating oversized clocks can also create bold focal points, transforming living spaces into visually enchanting areas while complementing metallic elements.

Choose Light and Airy Window Treatments

After establishing visual intrigue with metallic accents, attention turns to the interplay of light and space surrounding the light grey couch.

Expert spatial planning prioritizes window treatments that maximize luminance and visual expansion. The selection of sheer or light-filtering fabrics is essential for promoting an airy feel, harmonizing with the couch’s cool neutrality.

Sheer, light-filtering window treatments amplify natural light and spaciousness, perfectly complementing the calm sophistication of a light grey couch.

To achieve a clean minimalist look and cohesive color palette, consider these strategies:

1. Opt for neutral-toned or pastel curtains that echo the light grey couch, reinforcing chromatic unity.
2. Choose Roman shades or roller blinds in soft, translucent fabrics for refined light diffusion and adaptable privacy.
3. Layer sheer panels with lightweight drapes, introducing subtle depth without visual clutter.
4. Avoid heavy, opaque, or dark window treatments, which risk undermining the desired open and ethereal ambiance.
5. Consider low-light plants to enhance the aesthetic appeal and create a calming atmosphere, complementing the airy design of the living room.

Highlight With Muted Greens

A light grey couch provides an ideal foundation for integrating sage accents and olive green accessories, utilizing analogous color relationships to achieve visual harmony. Strategically placed botanical prints can reinforce this palette, infusing the space with organic motifs and subtle complexity. The interplay of muted greens and grey not only enhances spatial tranquility but also introduces biophilic elements that expand the perceived openness of the room. Incorporating plants like Pothos, Monstera Deliciosa, and English Ivy can further enhance air quality and add a touch of living greenery, elevating the room’s aesthetic and environmental quality.

Pair With Sage Accents

Sage accents function as a sophisticated bridge between the cool undertones of a light grey couch and the surrounding living room palette. The integration of sage, a muted green, establishes a serene, airy feel, while subtly enhancing spatial cohesion.

Through the lens of color theory, sage green’s low saturation complements grey without introducing visual discord. This pairing fosters a natural aesthetic, balancing organic inspiration with contemporary restraint.

1. Layered Tones: Varying shades of sage on cushions or textiles introduces depth and visual interest, preventing monotony.
2. Textural Harmony: Soft throws or rugs in sage contribute tactile dimension, reinforcing the room’s inviting ambiance.
3. Artful Placement: Sage-hued artwork strategically anchors the light grey couch, directing visual flow.
4. Organic Integration: Houseplants in sage tones seamlessly blur boundaries between interior and exterior elements.

Olive Green Accessories

Incorporating olive green accessories introduces a nuanced layer of contrast to the light grey couch, utilizing muted green’s earthy undertones to enhance spatial depth and balance.

Color theory supports this pairing; olive green, with its subdued warmth, offsets the cool neutrality of a light grey couch, creating a harmonious and tranquil palette.

Strategically placing olive green throw pillows or blankets establishes visual focal points, drawing attention without disrupting the room’s airy atmosphere.

When layered with natural elements such as wood, these accessories reinforce a sense of organic cohesion.

Integrating olive green in decorative accents or select artwork further refines the spatial composition, while potted plants echo these tones, amplifying freshness and reinforcing the connection to nature.

The result is a living room that feels effortlessly inviting and stylistically uplifted.

Incorporate Botanical Prints

When botanical prints featuring muted greens are introduced into a living room with a light grey couch, they serve as both a visual anchor and a conduit for biophilic design principles. The interplay of botanical motifs and subtle green hues engages the eye, while reinforcing a cohesive palette grounded in color theory.

Strategic placement maximizes spatial awareness, ensuring the prints enhance rather than overpower. Consider the following expert recommendations:

1. Select large-scale botanical prints as a focal point above the light grey couch to create depth and visual interest.
2. Integrate muted greens through cushions or curtains for a layered, airy and open ambiance.
3. Vary the intensity of greens to complement the cool undertones of the upholstery.
4. Balance prints with negative space to avoid visual clutter and maintain harmony.

Mix in Cozy Throws and Cushions

Though a light grey couch provides a versatile foundation, the strategic layering of textured throws and cushions introduces depth and tactile variation to the living room.

Employing cushions in velvet or linen juxtaposes softness against the couch’s smooth upholstery, enhancing sensory appeal.

Velvet and linen cushions add tactile contrast to a light grey couch, amplifying both comfort and visual interest.

Spatially, arranging cozy throws in warm hues—such as blush pink or mustard yellow—over the armrest or backrest not only injects warmth but also delineates the seating area, drawing focus to the couch as a visual anchor.

Integrating a mix of patterned and solid-colored cushions, while maintaining a cohesive palette, guarantees visual harmony and dynamism within the space.

Regular rotation of these elements supports seasonal adaptability, allowing the living area to remain inviting and current through subtle, cost-effective updates.

Adding reflective surfaces like mirrors and glass accents can further amplify natural light, enhancing the overall brightness and depth of the room.

Style With Minimalist Decor

While minimalism champions restraint and intentionality, a light grey couch serves as an ideal anchor in such a space, amplifying the sense of openness through its subdued hue and streamlined form.

Minimalist decor relies on spatial clarity and the interplay of muted tones, making the light grey couch a focal point that harmonizes with its surroundings.

To enhance the aesthetic and maintain visual interest without disrupting the calm, consider these strategies:

1. Select furniture with clean lines and subtle silhouettes to reinforce the minimalist ethos.
2. Employ a neutral color palette—incorporating whites, beiges, and soft pastels—to enhance luminosity and spatial flow.
3. Introduce natural elements, such as wood accents or discreet greenery, for organic texture and warmth.
4. Wall-mount the TV for a sleek look and to save floor space, ensuring the room maintains its minimalist appeal.
5. Curate a limited selection of accessories to avoid clutter and maintain visual balance.

Ground the Space With a Light-Colored Rug

A light-colored rug strategically amplifies both luminosity and visual breadth when paired with a light grey sofa, reinforcing an expansive, inviting ambiance. By selecting hues that echo or gently contrast the sofa, the rug facilitates seamless spatial shifts and softly defines functional zones within an open-plan living area. This approach leverages color theory to unify the composition while maintaining an uncluttered, harmonious environment. Adding plush rugs like shaggy or wool enhances comfort and warmth, further contributing to the overall cozy atmosphere of the living room.

Enhance Brightness and Space

How can spatial perception be optimized in a living area anchored by a light grey couch? Strategic use of a light-colored rug serves as a visual anchor beneath the furniture, while also amplifying brightness and fostering an airy atmosphere.

Employing principles of color theory and spatial awareness, designers can leverage the following techniques for maximum spaciousness:

1. Select a light-colored rug—such as cream or light beige—to complement the light grey couch, reinforcing a cohesive, luminous palette.
2. Utilize the rug’s reflective qualities to disperse natural light, increasing perceived openness in compact spaces.
3. Introduce subtle textures or minimal patterns to the rug for depth, avoiding visual clutter while maintaining elegance.
4. Layer the light rug over darker flooring to create contrast, further emphasizing the light grey couch as the room’s focal point.

Soften Transitions Between Zones

Building on principles that amplify brightness and spatial clarity, designers can further refine living room zones by introducing a light-colored rug beneath a light grey couch.

This approach strategically grounds the space, providing a visual anchor that delineates distinct functional areas without interrupting the overall flow. Selecting a rug in soft beige or cream complements the light grey couch, enhancing the airy feel and promoting cohesion through tonal harmony.

The subtle contrast between a textured rug and smooth upholstery introduces nuanced depth, preventing the space from appearing flat or monotonous. When layered over darker flooring, a light-colored rug invites warmth and clearly defines each living zone.

This spatial technique guarantees passages between areas remain soft, seamless, and visually unified within the open-plan living environment.

Display a Gallery Wall With Subtle Art

When curated with intention, a gallery wall featuring subtle art serves as a sophisticated extension of the light grey couch’s inherent tranquility, enhancing spatial flow and visual balance.

Utilizing expert color theory, selecting art in soft, muted hues—such as pastels and light neutrals—maintains a cohesive look and prevents visual dominance. The interplay between artwork scale and negative space adds nuanced visual interest without overwhelming the serene living room palette. Incorporate complementary colors for a harmonious visual display, balancing subtle tones to engage without overpowering the space.

For ideal effect, consider these principles:

1. Prioritize art pieces with understated compositions and gentle color shifts.
2. Arrange frames of varied dimensions and orientations to foster dynamic symmetry.
3. Opt for light wood or white frames to reinforce the airy, integrated atmosphere.
4. Regularly rotate selected artworks to invigorate the space while preserving stylistic cohesion.

Such careful curation raises both ambiance and design integrity.

Bring in Fresh Greenery

While artful curation on the walls establishes visual harmony, introducing fresh greenery further enhances the room’s serenity and spatial energy.

The juxtaposition of vibrant indoor plants against a light grey couch leverages color theory, allowing green hues to pop and infuse liveliness into the palette’s neutral foundation.

Greenery set against a light grey couch enlivens the space, making natural hues stand out within a soothing neutral scheme.

Opting for potted plants such as snake plants, pothos, or peace lilies not only improves air quality but also introduces organic texture and form.

Strategic placement of greenery—near windows or flanking seating—maximizes natural light, ensuring the living area feels more expansive and visually balanced.

Employing natural elements like wood planters or woven baskets for plant displays enhances tactile richness, reinforcing an airy, inviting ambiance while maintaining the modern sophistication synonymous with a light grey couch living room.

Integrate Glass and Mirrored Surfaces

A judicious incorporation of glass and mirrored surfaces enhances the light grey couch living room by amplifying spatial perception and luminosity.

These transparent materials interact harmoniously with the neutral palette, elevating both the airy feel and sleek aesthetic. The strategic placement of such elements optimizes light diffusion and maintains visual continuity.

Consider the following expert recommendations:

1. Select glass coffee or side tables to reflect ambient light, preserving an open, uncluttered visual field.
2. Integrate mirrored surfaces through wall décor or accent pieces, introducing sophistication and expanding perceived dimensions.
3. Employ transparent materials in shelving or display units to reinforce spatial flow and prevent heaviness.
4. Combine these reflective components with soft textures—plush throws or cushions—for a balanced interplay between tactile comfort and visual lightness.

Opt for Low-Profile Furniture

By integrating low-profile furniture into a living room anchored by a light grey couch, spatial perception is heightened and the inherent serenity of the palette is preserved.

Low-profile furniture, characterized by sleek lines and minimal massing, enhances the airy feel by maximizing open visual planes and allowing uninterrupted sightlines. The restrained silhouette of low-back sofas and streamlined coffee tables maintains a modern aesthetic, aligning with the subtle sophistication of light grey upholstery.

Selecting pieces with slender legs further reduces visual weight, creating an elegant sense of elevation and contributing to a more expansive environment. This spatial strategy optimizes light diffusion throughout the room, utilizing the reflective qualities of the light grey couch to promote a luminous, uncluttered ambiance that is both relaxed and architecturally cohesive.

Accent With Blush and Rose Tones

Strategically layering soft pink accents introduces subtle warmth and visual balance to the cool neutrality of a light grey couch.

Integrating rose gold elements further refines the palette, offering metallic contrast and a sense of luminosity within the living room spatial composition.

This approach leverages color theory principles to achieve a harmonious and inviting environment.

Layer Soft Pink Accents

Soft pink accents—namely blush and rose tones—introduce a calibrated warmth to the cool neutrality of a light grey couch, utilizing color theory to achieve a balanced and visually inviting atmosphere.

These hues, when strategically layered, offer a nuanced interplay of warm and cool tones that is especially effective in airy spaces with abundant natural light. The integration of natural textures further grounds the composition, enhancing both tactile and visual comfort.

For ideal effect, consider the following strategies:

1. Layer blush throw pillows and rose-toned blankets to add dimension and soften the visual profile.
2. Incorporate pink-tinted artwork for a cohesive chromatic narrative.
3. Select decorative vases with subtle blush undertones to echo the palette.
4. Introduce wooden or wicker elements to anchor the space and amplify its airy quality.

Pair With Rose Gold

A harmonious interplay of metallic rose gold accents with a light grey couch leverages both spatial contrast and color theory, elevating the room’s visual sophistication. The cool, neutral backdrop of the light grey couch enhances the luminous warmth of rose gold accents, while blush tones introduced via textiles and accessories soften the aesthetic. This calculated juxtaposition creates visual interest without overwhelming the environment, maintaining a stylish ambiance. The reflective surfaces of rose gold decor or lighting fixtures diffuse warmth, subtly adjusting the spatial perception to feel more inviting. This palette remains versatile across contemporary and transitional styles, optimizing the airy, fresh feel of the space. Below, a matrix illustrates effective combinations for this refined approach:

Element	Material/Finish	Visual Effect
Throw Pillows	Blush Velvet	Soft Contrast
Light Fixtures	Rose Gold Metal	Warm Reflection
Coffee Table	Glass + Rose Gold	Airy Elegance
Decorative Trays	Rose Gold Mirror	Luxe Accent

Use Sleek Lighting Fixtures

When integrated with intention, sleek lighting fixtures introduce refined structure and luminosity to a living room anchored by a light grey couch.

These elements are essential for cultivating a modern aesthetic, utilizing principles of spatial awareness and color theory to maximize visual openness. Metallic or glass finishes on fixtures reflect natural and artificial light, enhancing the room’s airy quality.

Employing layered lighting achieves ideal functionality and ambiance, preventing the monochrome palette from feeling flat or cold.

1. Select minimalist pendant lights or floor lamps to reinforce clean lines and spatial clarity.
2. Incorporate fixtures with reflective surfaces to amplify light and add subtle sophistication.
3. Use adjustable dimmers for dynamic shifts between energizing daylight and evening ambient lighting.
4. Integrate task and accent lighting to create depth, ensuring a balanced, inviting environment.

Add Woven Baskets for Storage

Several thoughtfully placed woven baskets introduce both visual texture and functional organization to a living room anchored by a light grey couch.

Woven baskets, crafted from natural materials such as jute or seagrass, infuse warmth, balancing the cool undertones of the upholstery. Their organic hues and tactile surfaces add depth, enhancing spatial layering and the overall stylishness of the environment.

Strategically positioning baskets under coffee tables or adjacent to the light grey couch maximizes utility, providing a seamless storage solution for essentials like throws, magazines, or children’s toys.

By varying basket sizes and weaves, designers can establish a cohesive yet dynamic composition that supports the room’s airy ambiance.

Ultimately, these natural accents refine the living area’s organization while amplifying its textural and visual appeal.

Contrast With Black or Charcoal Details

While natural woven baskets introduce warmth and texture, juxtaposing a light grey couch with black or charcoal accents utilizes the principles of contrast and balance in interior design.

This interplay of value enhances spatial perception, allowing the light grey couch to emerge as a focal point within modern decor. Black accents and charcoal details mitigate the risk of the palette appearing washed out, reinforcing visual depth and sophistication.

For a curated yet airy feel, consider the following applications:

1. Position charcoal throw pillows or a black accent chair to anchor the seating zone.
2. Integrate black or charcoal coffee tables and shelving for structural harmony.
3. Deploy a dark area rug beneath the light grey couch to delineate space.
4. Select black lighting fixtures to unify and boost the overall atmosphere.

Frequently Asked Questions

How to Style Living Room With Light Grey Couch?

To style a living room with a light grey couch, one should employ cushion combinations and accent pillows in harmonious hues, select a textured rug for balance, layer a coordinating throw blanket, and display cohesive wall art for spatial unity.

How to Make a Grey Sofa Less Boring?

To enliven a grey sofa, one can employ grey sofa accessories such as textured throws and vibrant pillows, strategically balancing complementary hues. Incorporating statement art and layered rugs introduces visual dynamism, enhancing spatial interest through expert color theory applications.

What Color Compliments a Gray Couch?

When considering colors that complement a gray couch, experts recommend integrating beige accents for warmth, blue pillows for cool contrast, green plants for vibrancy, yellow artwork for energy, and white curtains to enhance spatial luminosity and balance.

How to Make a Grey Living Room Look Cosy?

To create a cozy aesthetic in a grey living room, one should integrate cozy accessories, warm lighting, and textured fabrics. Layered rugs and soft pillows introduce tactile depth, while strategic color placement enhances warmth, ensuring spatial harmony and inviting ambiance.

Conclusion

In conclusion, a light grey couch serves as a versatile anchor, inviting nuanced exploration of spatial dynamics and chromatic interplay. Expert application of layered textures, pastel accents, and natural materials leverages the couch’s neutrality, amplifying both luminosity and depth. Strategic contrast—with black or metallic elements—enhances visual interest, while considered use of white walls and sleek lighting maximizes perceived volume. Each approach guarantees the living room remains both airy and sophisticated, exemplifying masterful color theory and spatial composition.